맞섬의 geography/트럼프가 촉발한 전지구적 사회운동

Political emotions on the far right:tank magazine

alice11 2025. 6. 16. 22:20

For over a decade now, leading liberal intellectuals have presented our political drama as straightforward. From Eastern European populists to Latin American authoritarians to emboldened neofascists to Pepe trolls to Donald Trump, the far right fattens itself by feeding on voters’ emotions. Their populisms, their fascisms all rely on an “authoritarian playbook” to manoeuvre voters whose resentment and fervour is outstripped only by their hoodwinkability. Against such manipulators has stood Liberalism. Liberalism, with a capital L, has been there just as it was in the 1930s – the protector of individuals, the defender of the marginalised, the guarantor of justice, the basis of all rational politics.

Thus one noted historian, on the heels of his books Bloodlands (2010) and Black Earth (2015), has written self-help books On Tyranny (2017), The Road to Unfreedom (2018) and On Freedom (2024). Another, no less X-adept colleague, has normalised, via X and CNN and Substack, the rhetoric about “strongmen” and their “playbooks.” From the author of such low-calorie airport bestsellers as Twilight of Democracy: The Seductive Lure of Authoritarianism (2020) to seemingly the entirety of MSNBC to a Yale philosopher who publishes titles as pompous as How Fascism Works (2018), How Propaganda Works (2015) and even Erasing History: How Fascists Rewrite the Past to Control the Future (2024), we are treated constantly to the image of a battle anyone can wage from Bluesky or Zoom room, in which historians own rationality and authority in the “resistance.” The American Historical Association hosted MSNBC’s Rachel Maddow on one of the headline panels of its 2024 annual meeting, closing the circle of mutual legitimation.

10년이 넘게 주요 자유주의 지식인들은 우리의 정치 드라마를 단순명료하게 제시해 왔습니다. 동유럽 포퓰리스트부터 라틴 아메리카 권위주의자, 대담해진 신파시스트, 페페 트롤, 도널드 트럼프에 이르기까지 극우 세력은 유권자들의 감정을 이용해 스스로를 살찌웁니다. 그들의 포퓰리즘과 파시즘은 모두 유권자들의 분노와 열정을 조종하기 위해 "권위주의적 전략"에 의존합니다. 유권자들의 분노와 열정은 그들의 속임수에 불과합니다. 이러한 조작자들에 맞서 자유주의는 굳건히 버텨왔습니다. 대문자 L로 시작하는 자유주의는 1930년대와 마찬가지로 개인의 보호자, 소외된 사람들의 옹호자, 정의의 보장자, 모든 합리적 정치의 기반으로서 존재해 왔습니다.

한 저명한 역사학자는 그의 저서 『블러드랜드』(2010)와 『블랙 어스』(2015)에 이어 『폭정에 대하여』(2017), 『불자유로 가는 길』(2018), 그리고 『자유에 대하여』(2024)라는 자기 계발서를 썼습니다. 또 다른, 그에 못지않게 X에 정통한 동료는 X, CNN, 그리고 서브스택을 통해 "강자"와 그들의 "플레이북"에 대한 수사를 정상화했습니다. Twilight of Democracy: The Seductive Lure of Authoritarianism(2020)과 같은 저칼로리 공항 베스트셀러 작가부터 MSNBC 전체를 거쳐 How Fascism Works(2018), How Propaganda Works(2015), 심지어 Erasing History: How Fascists Rewrite the Past to Control the Future(2024)와 같은 거창한 제목을 출판하는 예일대 철학자에 이르기까지, 우리는 누구나 Bluesky나 Zoom 룸에서 벌일 수 있는 전투의 이미지를 끊임없이 접하게 됩니다. 역사가들은 그 전투에서 "저항"의 합리성과 권위를 소유합니다. 미국 역사학회는 2024년 연례 회의의 헤드라인 패널 중 하나에 MSNBC의 레이첼 매도를 초대하여 상호 정당화의 고리를 마무리했습니다.

In all these cases “we the rational” struggle against the manipulators; those who won’t resist are their marionettes. This us-versus-them narrative has predominated since the early 2010s. It lives off a convenient and overcooked binary: emotions belong to the extremists and are easily controlled – even manhandled – with the support of Russia, China, and other illiberal actors. We the rational think of pluralities, we articulate plans and policies, we react to science judiciously, we care properly for the marginalised, we “think things through.” Nevertheless, the theory goes, the authoritarians are multiplying because of the emotionally volatile crowds that support them.

And so has passed a decade of resentful voters, manipulated feelings, Steele dossiers, and stringent cautions about how good liberals cannot recoil because they need to capture the centre and convince enough good people, women especially. This entire narrative – they the emotional, they the manipulated – has not worked out well. The far right, alt right, “populist” right, fascist right, name it what you will, is no longer just “on the rise.” It is now well-established; from Britain’s Reform Party, lurching convulsively past Enoch Powell, to Modi’s Bharatiya Janata Party, to the US president, to parts of Latin America. In France, the Front Républicain that was originally set up against the Front National (itself now wearing a “respectable” costume as the “National Rally”) has collapsed into a vague, opportunistic, even callous defence of Emmanuel Macron’s flagging presidency. Decrying the left as irresponsible, Macron ultimately based a government on the National Rally’s parliamentary force. The Netherlands has swung hard to the right and in Sweden the populist Sweden Democrats provide confidence to the government.

이 모든 경우에 "이성적인 우리"는 조종자들에 맞서 싸웁니다. 저항하지 않는 자들은 그들의 꼭두각시입니다. 이러한 '우리 대 그들'이라는 서사는 2010년대 초부터 지배적인 위치를 차지해 왔습니다. 이는 편리하고 너무 많이 사용된 이분법적 사고에 기반합니다. 감정은 극단주의자들의 것이며, 러시아, 중국, 그리고 다른 비자유주의 세력들의 지원을 받아 쉽게 통제되고, 심지어 함부로 다루어질 수도 있다는 것입니다. 이성적인 우리는 다원성을 생각하고, 계획과 정책을 구체화하고, 과학에 현명하게 대응하고, 소외된 사람들을 제대로 돌보고, "사물을 철저히 생각한다"는 것입니다. 그럼에도 불구하고, 이 이론에 따르면 권위주의자들은 그들을 지지하는 감정적으로 불안정한 대중들 때문에 증가하고 있습니다.

그리고 10년 동안 분노한 유권자들, 조작된 감정, 스틸 문서, 그리고 훌륭한 진보주의자들이 중심을 잡고 충분한 수의 "선량한 사람들", 특히 여성들을 설득해야 하기 때문에 물러설 수 없다는 엄격한 경고가 있었습니다. 이러한 서사, 즉 감정적인 그들, 조종당하는 그들 - 는 제대로 작동하지 않았습니다. 극우, 대안 우파, "포퓰리즘" 우파, 파시스트 우파, 뭐라고 부르든, 더 이상 단순히 "상승세"에 그치지 않습니다. 영국의 개혁당(Enoch Powell을 경련성으로 추월)부터 모디의 바라티야 자나타당(Bharatiya Janata Party), 미국 대통령, 그리고 라틴 아메리카 일부 지역에 이르기까지, 이들은 이제 확고한 입지를 굳혔습니다. 프랑스에서는 원래 국민 전선(Front National, 지금은 "국민 연합(National Rally)"이라는 "존경받는" 의상을 입고 있음)에 맞서 결성되었던 공화국 전선(Front Républicain)이 에마뉘엘 마크롱의 기세가 꺾인 대통령직을 모호하고 기회주의적이며 심지어 냉혹하게 옹호하는 방향으로 붕괴되었습니다. 좌파를 무책임하다고 비난했던 마크롱은 결국 국민 연합의 의회 세력을 기반으로 정부를 구성했습니다. 네덜란드는 극우로 기울었고, 스웨덴에서는 포퓰리즘 스웨덴 민주당이 정부에 신뢰를 주고 있습니다.

Weak powers elsewhere have had some, but only some, qualms about welcoming the far right into government. Austrian parties managed only with difficulty to form a government without it. German conservatives dithered over governing with the Alternative für Deutschland (AfD). In Italy, enough Berlusconiesque governments have dominated over three decades to leave liberal self-celebration in Giorgia Meloni’s dirt. In the US, meanwhile, the defenders of liberalism warned us to save democracy. All that could stand up to the fury of the “deplorables” whose anxieties Trump was exploiting was a post-Obama tent that stretched from the supposed feminism of Hillary Clinton to the amorphous centrism of Kamala Harris, and from a loud (if bland) respect for difference to a nostalgia for an era where human rights guided us into the future and the dead in Afghanistan and Iraq and Syria and Libya and Mali were lamentable but acceptable prices to pay for liberal security. If these charming promises failed to break glass ceilings or ward off the “weird,” the courts would fix it all. Happy end guaranteed – if not now, soon.

다른 지역의 약소국들은 극우 세력의 정부 구성을 환영하는 데 약간의 우려를 표했지만, 그 우려는 극우 세력에만 국한되었습니다. 오스트리아 정당들은 극우 세력 없이 정부를 구성하는 데 어려움을 겪었습니다. 독일 보수파는 독일을 위한 대안(AfD)과의 협력을 두고 망설였습니다. 이탈리아에서는 베를루스코니식 정권이 30년 넘게 집권하면서 자유주의 세력의 자화자찬은 조르지아 멜로니의 똥으로 전락했습니다. 한편 미국에서는 자유주의 옹호자들이 민주주의를 지켜야 한다고 경고했습니다. 트럼프가 그들의 불안을 이용하고 있는 "개탄스러운 사람들"의 분노에 맞설 수 있는 것은 힐러리 클린턴의 소위 페미니즘부터 카말라 해리스의 모호한 중도주의까지, 그리고 차이에 대한 시끄럽지만 (단조로운) 존중부터 인권이 우리를 미래로 인도했던 시대에 대한 향수, 그리고 아프가니스탄, 이라크, 시리아, 리비아, 말리의 죽음이 자유주의적 안보를 위해 치러야 할 비참하지만 용납할 수 있는 대가였던 시대에 대한 향수까지 아우르는 포스트 오바마 진영뿐이었습니다. 만약 이 매력적인 약속들이 유리 천장을 깨거나 "이상한" 것들을 막지 못한다면, 법원이 모든 것을 해결해 줄 것입니다. 행복한 결말이 보장됩니다. 지금 당장은 아니더라도 곧.

The grand intellectuals articulate this moral fantasy about the world in a tone of urgency and couple it with an admonition: to oppose the right-wing disaster we must thump our chests (which is fine because we are rational, not like the toxic chest-thumpers), denounce the pliability of others, not keep our heads down, echo liberal language. As if we were not allowed to oppose the clownish disgrace of Trumpism unless we agree to the framing of the “authoritarian playbook.” This has been a pernicious argument that provides succour and dignity to those whom one should call “Biden and Harris’s useful idiots,” in echo of Tony Judt’s famous article, “Bush’s Useful Idiots”, written against the liberal fellow-travellers for the Iraq War. For too long, the liberal angle has been warping “the discourse,” pretending that it represents a middle-ground politics full of facts, that it is rejected only by the populists and an irrational left. When anyone proposed to analyse “post-truth,” these were the same intellectuals who mocked “postmodernism” as a relativism that enabled, even created, Trump. When anyone says, over and over, that we simply do not understand what is going on, how Trump’s victory was possible, how he can have this support, who can be satisfied by what he says, the answer was that we should go back to opposing strongmen and see the enemy’s moral turpitude. When anyone pointed out that the war in Ukraine needed negotiation and not demonisation, that it had become a problematic proxy war that exhausted alliances and seemed likely to fail because of sheer lack of political will, resource differentials, and the recognition that a wider war would be catastrophic – these same intellectuals decried cowardice and demanded scalps. Similarly, it became impossible for Democrats to move a hair’s breadth away from Netanyahu’s policies – to quote Kamala Harris responding to a pro-Palestine heckler, “If you want Donald Trump to win, then say that” – and now look where we are. A liberalism that treats critics as hysterical and prejudiced has failed to see its own analytical resources are more limited and self-contradictory than they should be.

위대한 지식인들은 세상에 대한 이러한 도덕적 환상을 긴박감 넘치는 어조로 표현하며, 다음과 같은 경고를 덧붙입니다. 우익의 재앙에 반대하려면 가슴을 두드려야 합니다(우리는 이성적이기 때문에 괜찮습니다. 독이 있는 가슴만 두드리는 사람들과는 다르니까요). 다른 사람들의 순응성을 비난하고, 고개를 숙이지 말고, 자유주의적 언어를 따라 해야 합니다. 마치 "권위주의적 전략"의 틀에 동의하지 않는 한 트럼프주의라는 우스꽝스러운 수치에 반대할 수 없다는 듯이 말입니다. 이는 "바이든과 해리스의 쓸모없는 얼간이들"이라고 불러야 할 사람들에게 위안과 존엄성을 제공하는 악의적인 주장입니다. 이는 이라크 전쟁에 대한 자유주의적 동조자들을 비판하는 토니 주트의 유명한 글 "부시의 쓸모없는 얼간이들"과 유사합니다. 너무 오랫동안 자유주의적 시각은 "담론"을 왜곡해 왔습니다. 사실로 가득한 중도적 정치를 대표하며, 포퓰리스트와 비이성적인 좌파에게만 거부당하는 것처럼 가장해 왔습니다. 누군가 "탈진실"을 분석하자고 제안했을 때, 이들은 "포스트모더니즘"을 트럼프를 가능하게 하고, 심지어 만들어낸 상대주의라고 조롱했던 바로 그 지식인들이었습니다. 누군가 우리는 무슨 일이 일어나고 있는지, 트럼프의 승리가 어떻게 가능했는지, 어떻게 이런 지지를 얻을 수 있었는지, 그의 말에 누가 만족할 수 있는지 이해하지 못한다고 거듭거듭 말할 때, 그 대답은 우리가 강경파에 맞서 적의 도덕적 타락을 직접 목격해야 한다는 것이었습니다. 누군가 우크라이나 전쟁은 악마화가 아닌 협상이 필요하다고, 동맹을 소진시키고 정치적 의지 부족, 자원 격차, 그리고 더 큰 전쟁이 재앙을 초래할 것이라는 인식 부족으로 실패할 가능성이 높은 문제적 대리전이 되었다고 지적했을 때, 바로 이 지식인들은 비겁함을 비난하며 머릿가죽을 벗겨 달라고 요구했습니다. 마찬가지로, 민주당은 네타냐후의 정책에서 털끝만큼도 벗어나지 못하게 되었습니다. 카말라 해리스가 팔레스타인 지지자의 야유에 "도널드 트럼프가 이기길 원한다면 그렇게 말하세요"라고 답한 것을 보면, 지금 우리가 어떤 상황에 있는지 알 수 있습니다. 비판자들을 히스테리적이고 편견에 사로잡힌 존재로 취급하는 진보주의는 자신의 분석 자원이 필요 이상으로 제한적이고 모순적임을 깨닫지 못하고 있습니다.

This supposedly rational ideology now lies in tatters. Unsympathetic voters smelled the condescension from a mile away. And what protection has this ideology offered, and to whom, against the abuses that the Trump administration has inflicted daily since January 20? None. It has offered zero. In Europe too, EU leaders seem shellshocked and paralysed that the world – which told them innumerable times in two decades that it did not see things their way – now confronts them with a properly existential crisis in the figure of J. D. Vance.

Many of the grand intellectuals have made windfalls from their self-presentation: the very systems they set up to ward off populism have become tools for their own advancement. There’s nothing startling about people seeking public attention for their ideas. Meanwhile, the opposing side of the “fascism debate” among academics has largely insisted that the American state has long been primed for a quasi-fascism, that the continuities to neoliberal policies are overwhelming, that the analogy to the 1920s and 1930s is weak. This “debate” has been sterile for some time: two echo-chambers that leave aside everything – everything interesting – that we have learned over almost a century of analytical work, from psychoanalytic to sociological to cultural approaches.

이성적이라고 여겨졌던 이 이념은 이제 누더기가 되었습니다. 동정심 없는 유권자들은 멀리서도 그 오만함을 감지했습니다. 그리고 이 이념은 트럼프 행정부가 1월 20일 이후 매일같이 가해 온 악습으로부터 어떤 보호를, 그리고 누구에게 제공했습니까? 아무것도 제공하지 않았습니다. 단 한 번도 제공하지 않았습니다. 유럽에서도 EU 지도자들은 20년 동안 수없이 자신들의 관점이 아니라고 말해 온 세계가 이제 J. D. 밴스라는 인물을 통해 그들에게 제대로 된 실존적 위기를 안겨주자 충격을 받고 마비된 듯합니다.

많은 위대한 지식인들은 자기 자신을 드러내는 방식으로 횡재를 했습니다. 그들이 포퓰리즘을 막기 위해 구축했던 바로 그 시스템이 그들 자신의 출세를 위한 도구가 된 것입니다. 사람들이 자신의 사상에 대한 대중의 관심을 얻으려 한다는 것은 전혀 놀라운 일이 아닙니다. 한편, 학계 "파시즘 논쟁"의 반대 세력은 미국 국가가 오랫동안 준파시즘으로 치닫도록 준비되었고, 신자유주의 정책의 연속성이 압도적이며, 1920년대와 1930년대와의 유추는 미약하다고 주장해 왔습니다. 이 "논쟁"은 한동안 무의미했습니다. 정신분석학, 사회학, 문화적 접근에 이르기까지 거의 한 세기에 걸친 분석 작업을 통해 우리가 얻은 모든 것, 흥미로운 모든 것을 외면한 채 두 개의 반향실(echo chamber)만 남아 있었습니다.

So: what if I don’t find either argument in the “fascism debate” convincing – neither the reductive liberal account, nor the alternative account which satisfies itself with decrying poor “historical analogies?” What is intensifying politically is grotesque and morally disturbing – and it is some new variety of fascism, a blend of: techno-authoritarianism; libertarianism drunk on new hierarchies; celebration of the normative majority; intentional cruelty toward the weak; a leader-cult; a warping of state institutions to the benefit of the “movement;” the appeal to masculine power-in-order; an endorsement of militarist violence against supposedly shadowy domestic enemies and foreign foes. Call this “post-fascism,” following Enzo Traverso, or if you prefer a post-neoliberal variety of fascism, or perhaps even “late fascism,” as per Alberto Toscano. The term needs updating, reloading, rethinking – but within the modern political vocabulary, and until an analytically and morally more effective one is found, it is perfectly reasonable. Sure, as the “alternative” account has argued, we are not back in the 1930s. And a blend of ideologies of freedom with a smaller state and neoliberal economics does muddy the waters. Yet this did not stop students and leftwing intellectuals throughout the postwar period from often correctly diagnosing continuities with the fascist era. It is possible to make the – effectively moral – decision to name and blame the current movements “fascism” in order to oppose it, without doing so on the grounds the grand liberals have proposed, and without altogether losing the capacity to understand those who find them appealing.

그렇다면: "파시즘 논쟁"에서 두 주장 모두 설득력이 없다고 생각한다면 어떨까요? 환원주의적 자유주의적 설명도, 형편없는 "역사적 유비"를 비난하는 것으로 만족하는 대안적 설명도 말입니다. 정치적으로 심화되고 있는 것은 기괴하고 도덕적으로 불안한 것이며, 이는 새로운 종류의 파시즘, 즉 기술 권위주의, 새로운 위계질서에 취한 자유지상주의, 규범적 다수에 대한 찬양, 약자에 대한 의도적인 잔혹함, 지도자 숭배, "운동"의 이익을 위해 국가 기관을 왜곡하는 것, 남성적 권력 질서에 대한 호소, 그리고 그림자처럼 보이는 국내의 적과 외국의 적에 대한 군국주의적 폭력 지지 등이 뒤섞인 것입니다. 엔초 트라베르소의 표현을 빌리자면 이를 "포스트 파시즘"이라고 부르거나, 포스트 신자유주의적 파시즘을 선호한다면, 알베르토 토스카노의 표현을 빌리자면 "후기 파시즘"이라고 불러도 좋습니다. 이 용어는 업데이트, 재장전, 재고가 필요하지만, 현대 정치 어휘 내에서, 그리고 분석적, 도덕적으로 더 효과적인 용어가 발견될 때까지는 완벽하게 타당합니다. 물론 "대안적" 설명이 주장했듯이, 우리는 1930년대로 돌아가지 않았습니다. 자유 이념과 소규모 국가, 그리고 신자유주의 경제의 혼합은 상황을 혼란스럽게 합니다. 그러나 이는 전후 시기의 학생과 좌파 지식인들이 파시스트 시대와의 연속성을 종종 정확하게 진단하는 것을 막지는 못했습니다. 대자유주의자들이 제시한 근거에 의거하지 않고, 그리고 그 주장에 매력을 느끼는 사람들을 이해하는 능력을 완전히 잃지 않으면서도, 현재의 운동을 "파시즘"이라고 명명하고 비난하는, 사실상 도덕적인 결정을 내려 파시즘에 반대할 수 있습니다.

For this, it seems to me necessary to reconsider, together with the ideological schemas mentioned above, the entwinement of emotions and economic disaster thanks to which voters end up supporting this fascism. Can we look at the reasons why people feel as they do, why they embody a particular ethos thanks to which they find such practices not only unproblematic but exciting? The liberal lectures, with their haughty, admonishing tone, had supposedly figured out emotions and ideas on the far right. They have not. Much more serious work in decoding and rethinking the stances and appeal of the right has been pursued on the political-economic front by scholars like Wendy Brown, Quinn Slobodian and Melinda Cooper, who have sought to understand neoliberalism’s role, but also by public intellectuals like Sam Adler-Bell and Matthew Sitman on the Know Your Enemy podcast and by Natalie Wynn in ContraPoints. The essays that follow in this section parse desire, anger and injury. The goal is to foreground the share of emotion in the ongoing political, economic and intellectual disaster.

One rationale – you could have others – behind this building of emotions might go like this. By 1992, Pierre Bourdieu argued that it had become clear to small-town, unprivileged officials that the state was no longer serving as the guardian of the public interest. Instead, its upper echelons, the “senior state nobility,” were basically selling out on TV, where politicians appeared, craving ever more attention and symbolic capital. To those with daily contact with the poor, a decade of socialist rule had desiccated rather than strengthened the state. This was leading to worsening uncertainty and despair. Promises by the Socialist Party were empty given the shape of contemporary politics. The lesson to the “lesser” officials was as clear as it was to their constituents: like the powerful, you too have to abuse the state to serve your own interests. You too have to break it, to sell it out – it won’t work for those it should work for. When you fail to manipulate this system, it becomes as hostile and shadowy as anyone who seems to succeed at this.

이를 위해, 위에서 언급한 이념적 도식과 더불어, 유권자들이 결국 이 파시즘을 지지하게 되는 감정과 경제적 재앙의 얽힘을 재고해 볼 필요가 있다고 생각합니다. 사람들이 왜 그렇게 느끼는지, 왜 그러한 관행을 문제 삼지 않을 뿐만 아니라 흥미롭게 여기는 특정한 정신을 체현하는지 그 이유를 살펴볼 수 있을까요? 거만하고 훈계하는 어조의 자유주의 강연은 극우의 감정과 사상을 파악했다고 주장했습니다. 하지만 그렇지 않았습니다. 웬디 브라운, 퀸 슬로보디안, 멜린다 쿠퍼와 같은 학자들은 신자유주의의 역할을 이해하고자 했으며, 샘 애들러-벨과 매튜 시트먼 같은 대중 지식인들은 'Know Your Enemy' 팟캐스트, 그리고 나탈리 윈은 'ContraPoints'에서 우파의 입장과 매력을 해독하고 재고하는 훨씬 더 진지한 작업을 정치경제 분야에서 수행해 왔습니다. 이 섹션의 이어지는 글들은 욕망, 분노, 그리고 상처를 분석합니다. 목표는 현재 진행 중인 정치적, 경제적, 지적 재앙에서 감정이 차지하는 비중을 부각하는 것입니다.

이러한 감정의 축적 뒤에는 한 가지 근거(다른 근거들도 있을 수 있지만)가 있을 수 있습니다. 1992년 무렵, 피에르 부르디외는 소도시의 소외된 관료들에게 국가가 더 이상 공익의 수호자 역할을 하지 않는다는 것이 분명해졌다고 주장했습니다. 오히려 국가의 상층부, 즉 "상위 국가 귀족"은 정치인들이 출연하는 TV에 사실상 매진하며 더 많은 관심과 상징적 자본을 갈구하고 있었습니다. 빈민과 매일 접촉하는 사람들에게 10년간의 사회주의 통치는 국가를 강화하기는커녕 말라붙게 만들었습니다. 이는 불확실성과 절망을 심화시켰습니다. 현대 정치의 모습을 고려하면 사회당의 약속은 공허했습니다. "하위" 관료들에게 주는 교훈은 그들의 유권자들에게 주는 교훈만큼이나 명확했습니다. 권력자들처럼, 당신도 자신의 이익을 위해 국가를 악용해야 한다는 것입니다. 당신도 그것을 부수고 팔아치워야 합니다. 효과가 있어야 할 사람들에게는 효과가 없을 테니까요. 이 시스템을 제대로 조종하지 못하면, 성공하는 것처럼 보이는 사람들만큼이나 적대적이고 모호해집니다.

That was over 30 years ago – with none of the mess that has followed. Today, in Producteurs et parasites (2024), Michel Feher describes the French National Rally as offering an answer to that despair: a racialised “producerism” for dividing society between “producers and parasites.” Where Fordism and Keynesianism had long downplayed race, their demise since the 1970s, heightened by the tensions of globalisation, has allowed the right to reinsert race and an us-versus-them mentality by appealing to a “producer’s” wish to enjoy and own their work. It’s a different class struggle: grievances can’t be answered, as Bourdieu already noted, by the left’s doctrines. The National Rally, like Trump and Vance and so many others, has no difficulty identifying the supposed instigators of suffering: the “parasites,” including foreigners and most of the state apparatus. As grievances mount, one or more figures identified as leaders move in to name and blame the parasites, to guide the mounting fury, to stand in as healers of the injury.

Figures of the leader as enabler/healer have been around for some time – a healer working not through economic policy, but through emotional needs. Adorno had already suggested that “by making the leader his ideal, [the supporter] loves himself, as it were, but gets rid of the stains of frustration and discontent which mar his picture of his own empirical self.” Klaus Theweleit, in his study of the memoirs and novels of Freikorps soldiers after the First World War, presented the leader’s speech as having something more than a healing quality: the capacity to arouse. It mended the psychic castration of the injured:

그것은 30년도 더 전의 일이었고, 그 이후의 혼란은 전혀 없었다. 오늘날, 미셸 페에르는 『생산자와 기생충』(2024)에서 프랑스 국민전선이 그러한 절망에 대한 해답을 제시한다고 묘사한다. 사회를 "생산자와 기생충"으로 나누는 인종차별적인 "생산자주의"가 바로 그것이다. 포드주의와 케인즈주의는 오랫동안 인종을 경시해 왔지만, 1970년대 이후 세계화의 긴장으로 고조된 그들의 몰락은 "생산자"가 자신의 작품을 즐기고 소유하고자 하는 욕구에 호소함으로써 인종과 '우리 대 그들'이라는 사고방식을 다시 집어넣을 권리를 허용했다. 이는 다른 계급 투쟁이다. 부르디외가 이미 지적했듯이, 좌파의 교리로는 불만에 답할 수 없다. 트럼프와 밴스, 그리고 다른 많은 사람들처럼 국민전선은 고통의 선동자로 여겨지는 사람들, 즉 외국인과 국가 기구의 대부분을 포함한 "기생충"을 식별하는 데 아무런 어려움이 없다. 불만이 쌓이면서, 지도자로 지목된 한 명 이상의 인물이 등장하여 기생충들을 지목하고 비난하며, 격앙되는 분노를 조장하고, 상처의 치유자 역할을 합니다.

지도자를 조력자/치유자로 보는 관점은 꽤 오래전부터 있어 왔습니다. 즉, 경제 정책이 아닌 정서적 욕구를 통해 치유하는 존재입니다. 아도르노는 이미 "지도자를 자신의 이상으로 삼음으로써 [지지자는] 마치 자신을 사랑하는 것처럼 행동하면서도, 자신의 경험적 자아상을 훼손하는 좌절과 불만의 얼룩을 없앤다"라고 주장한 바 있습니다. 클라우스 테벨라이트는 제1차 세계 대전 이후 자유군 병사들의 회고록과 소설을 연구하며, 지도자의 연설이 단순한 치유 이상의 무언가, 즉 각성시키는 능력을 지닌다고 주장했습니다. 그것은 부상자들의 정신적 거세를 치유하는 것이었습니다.

“The monstrous form that is oratory emerges from the mouth of the Führer and closes around [the listeners’] open wounds. The ritual of the speech protects them from castration and makes clear that men must join together with men, phallus with phallus (at the expense of whatever is socially “below” them). When the leader speaks and the audience moves into formation; when both speaker and audience have assumed the correct form and can anticipate mutual contact which cannot, must not be expressed as actual male love, since this is strictly forbidden, then the man, even as officer, is permitted to cry; indeed he is called upon to cry. This is the orgasm of oratory – surpassed only by the orgasm of killing.”

This figure of the injured audience – healed through speech, fused through shared emotion, sexually aroused into community – offers a way of understanding the deep anxiety fueled as much by economics as by libido. It helps explain what seems incomprehensible to the liberal sensibility: the fabrication of a separate value system, the perception of the “mainstream” as an urban over-educated fluffy elite that picks right at each wound. The left may react that majoritarian conservatism is the value system that blocks any chance for difference, inclusiveness, and an understanding of the weakest. But that means very little to those who feel violated over decades, who respond not to appeals to a vague ideal – no universal can respond to personal injury – but to the sense that foreign norms violate.

“웅변이라는 괴물 같은 형태는 총통의 입에서 나와 [청중들의] 열린 상처를 감싸 안는다. 연설의 의례는 그들을 거세로부터 보호하고, 남성끼리, 남근끼리 남근끼리 (사회적으로 그들보다 '아래'에 있는 모든 것을 희생하면서) 결합해야 함을 분명히 한다. 지도자가 연설하고 청중이 대형을 이룰 때, 연설자와 청중 모두 올바른 형태를 갖추고 진정한 남성적 사랑으로 표현될 수도, 표현되어서도 안 되는 (엄격히 금지되어 있기 때문에) 상호 접촉을 예상할 수 있을 때, 그 남자는 장교로서조차 울 수 있다. 사실 그는 울도록 부름받는다. 이것이 바로 웅변의 오르가즘이며, 오직 살인의 오르가즘만이 능가한다.”

말을 통해 치유되고, 감정을 공유하며, 성적으로 각성되어 공동체를 이루는 상처받은 청중의 모습은 경제적인 이유만큼이나 리비도에 의해 촉발되는 깊은 불안을 이해하는 방식을 제시한다. 이는 자유주의적 감수성으로는 이해할 수 없는 것처럼 보이는 것, 즉 별도의 가치 체계를 만들어내고, "주류"를 도시의 지나치게 교육받은 허풍스러운 엘리트로 인식하여 모든 상처를 콕콕 찌르는 것을 설명하는 데 도움이 됩니다. 좌파는 다수결주의적 보수주의가 차이, 포용성, 그리고 가장 약한 자에 대한 이해의 가능성을 차단하는 가치 체계라고 반응할지도 모릅니다. 하지만 수십 년간 침해당했다고 느끼는 이들에게는, 모호한 이상에 호소하는 것이 아니라(어떤 보편적인 기준도 개인적인 상처에 반응할 수는 없습니다) 자국이 아닌 외국의 규범에 의해 침해당한다는 느낌에 반응하는 이들에게는 이는 거의 의미가 없습니다.

We have perhaps spent too long with the languages of trauma and social inclusion to immediately recognise this alternate form of psychic injury, where economics leads to the invisibility and pain of another who believes they “should” not be invisible. The writer Édouard Louis, in his text “Why My Father Votes for Le Pen,” discounted his father’s homophobia and racism in favour of a similarly structural explanation of anger over disappearance and indifference: “These elections were a means to combat his invisibility. My father had understood long before me that, in the minds of the bourgeoisie, our existence did not count ... My father had felt abandoned by the left since the 1980s.” Back to Bourdieu: from the libidinal to the economic and back again. It is not that this circle is complete, or that it is all there is. Rather: not one part of it can be managed in the “fascism debate,” and especially not how this smelting of injury and rhetoric spreads beyond the traditional right.

우리는 아마도 트라우마와 사회적 포용의 언어와 너무 오랜 시간을 함께 보냈기에, 경제학이 타인의 눈에 보이지 않는 존재로, 그리고 타인이 자신이 눈에 보이지 않아야 한다고 믿는 고통으로 이어지는 이러한 대체 형태의 정신적 상처를 즉각적으로 인식하지 못했을 것입니다. 작가 에두아르 루이는 그의 글 "아버지가 르펜에게 투표하는 이유"에서 아버지의 동성애 혐오와 인종차별을 무시하고, 사라지고 무관심해지는 것에 대한 분노를 구조적으로 설명했습니다. "이 선거는 아버지의 눈에 보이지 않는 존재에 맞서기 위한 수단이었습니다. 아버지는 부르주아의 생각 속에서 우리의 존재가 중요하지 않다는 것을 저보다 훨씬 먼저 알고 계셨습니다... 아버지는 1980년대 이후 좌파에게 버림받았다고 느꼈습니다." 부르디외로 돌아가서, 리비도적 영역에서 경제적 영역으로, 그리고 다시 그 반대로 말입니다. 이 순환이 완전하거나, 존재하는 전부는 아닙니다. 오히려 "파시즘 논쟁"에서 다룰 수 있는 부분은 단 하나도 없으며, 특히 이러한 상처와 수사의 혼합이 전통적인 우파를 넘어 어떻게 확산되는지는 더욱 그렇습니다.

우리가 잘 알고 있듯이, 더 광범위한 문제는 실제로 구조적입니다. 역사의 정점에 잠시 홀로 서 있었던 과거 초강대국은 적어도 조지 W. 부시 이후 쇠퇴하고 과잉보상을 해왔습니다. 다른 강대국들은 중산층을 성장시키고 있으며, 미국이 제공하는 종속적인 지위에는 그다지 관심이 없습니다. 1990년대와 2000년대 세계화의 대가는 유령, 불안정, 그리고 "헛소리 같은 일자리"로 변질되었습니다. 전쟁의 대가는 도덕적 우월성을 가장하는 허울에 불과합니다. 세계 극우는 엘리트층뿐만 아니라, 자신의 비교 우위가 쇠퇴하는 것을 끊임없이 느낄 수 있는 사람들에게도 어필합니다. 파시즘, 포스트 파시즘, 후기 파시즘은 놀라운 일이 아닙니다. 트럼프와 오르반이 이러한 상황에 대응하고 이를 악용하는 것 역시 놀라운 일이 아닙니다. 이 시스템이 어떻게 작동하는지, 어떻게 파시스트적 역학을 촉발하는지 이해하지 못한다면 우리는 앞으로 나아갈 수 없습니다. 펠릭스 가타리는 파시즘이 근본적으로 욕망의 문제이며, (불행히도) 정신적 욕구를 충족시키고, 파시스트는 모든 사람 안에 숨어 있다고 생각했습니다. "파시즘은 외부에서 오는 것처럼 보이지만, 모든 사람의 욕망의 핵심에서 그 에너지를 찾습니다." 트럼프와 밴스의 새로운 연합의 보루가 된, 그리고 참여할 기회를 얻은 새롭게 이질화된 사회경제적 집단들은 이제 자신들의 권력에 열광하고 있습니다. 그들 역시 비교 우위의 쇠퇴를 느끼고, 그 에너지를 모든 사람의 욕망의 핵심에 사용할 기회를 얻었으며, 다른 사람들을 비난할 기회를 얻었습니다. 버려진 자유주의적 서사와 현재의 위험을 무시하는 사람과는 반대로, 이 글에서 다루는 글은 극우 유권자들이 "자유", "지성"에 대해 갖는 자부심, 점점 더 적대적이고 구조적으로 해롭고 편집증적인 세상을 해결해야 한다는 필요성, 절망에 대해 표현하는 두려움과 분노, 파괴적인 증오에 대한 정서적인 위안과 마찬가지로 지적인 위안을 다시 생각해보도록 촉구합니다.

https://tank.tv/magazine/issue-103/features/political-emotions-on-the-far-right

 

Political emotions on the far right — TANKtv

“DO YOU KNOW WHAT WOTAN WANTS?”FAR RIGHT PESSIMISM THEN AND NOWAlberto Toscano on Despair as Passion In April 1967, Theodor Adorno delivered a paper to a socialist students’ society at the University of Vienna, “Aspects of the New Right-Wing Extrem

tank.tv

 

https://www.editionsladecouverte.fr/producteurs_et_parasites-9782348084881

 

Producteurs et parasites - Michel Feher - Éditions La Découverte

Livre papier Livre numérique

www.editionsladecouverte.fr

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